the following describe internal states of symptoms except

Causes. . Hypnosis in conjunction with other techniques is used for a variety of therapeutic purposes and has shown to be at least somewhat effective for pain management, treatment of depression and anxiety, smoking cessation, and weight loss (Alladin, 2012; Elkins, Johnson, & Fisher, 2012; Golden, 2012; Montgomery, Schnur, & Kravits, 2012). Psychology 2e by Openstax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. High doses of MDMA can cause brain toxicity and death. Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths from SIDS in recent years (Mitchell, 2009; Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2011). Ahallucinogenis one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences (Figure 4.18). Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. In addition to withdrawal, many individuals who are diagnosed with substance use disorders will also develop tolerance to these substances. The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and sleepy. Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). A womans menstrual cycle is an example of a biological rhythma recurring, cyclical pattern of bodily changes. Is it absolutely essential that we sleep? Sleep deprivation, in general, is associated with a number of negative consequences (Brown, 2012). Avoid anything stimulating for an hour before bed. AK-complexis a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. For instance, the concentration of various ions in your blood must be kept steady, along with pH and the concentration of glucose. One particular aspect of the internal state is that a method applied to the object being in a defined internal state (= a specific set of all its attributes' value) will result in another, also defined (and reproducible) internal state. While amphetamines are often abused, they are also commonly prescribed to children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Alertness is associated with higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures. Loss of appetite. How does hypnosis work? When he told me, I made him go see the college therapist. Medical marijuana is legal in over half of the United States and in the District of Columbia (Figure 4.19). Those who continue to have insomnia, particularly if it affects their quality of life, should seek professional treatment. Opioid addiction reached crisis levels in the United States such that by 2019, an average of 130 people diedeach dayof an opioid overdose (NIDA, 2019). In the latter part of 2013, however, the United States Department of Justice issued statements indicating that they would not continue to challenge state medical marijuana laws. (a) Common paraphernalia for heroin preparation and use are shown here in a needle exchange kit. These effects can occur as a function of accumulated sleep debt or in response to more acute periods of sleep deprivation. Using crystal meth poses a number of serious long-term health issues, including dental problems (often called meth mouth), skin abrasions caused by excessive scratching, memory loss, sleep problems, violent behavior, paranoia, and hallucinations. Five cardinal signs characterize this response: pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. It is typically consumed in pill form. The participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, trust the hypnotist and let go. For example, a person may work from 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. on Monday, 3:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday, and 11:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. on Wednesday. This feeling of a depressed mood is also accompanied by two or more additional symptoms, to include changes in appetite, insomnia or hypersomnia, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness, and poor concentration or difficulty with decision making. These include daydreaming, intoxication, and unconsciousness due to anesthesia. There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. Often, however, people wishing to learn to meditate receive some training in techniques to achieve a meditative state. Two of them I didnt even know I was involved in until afterwards (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). THE INTERNAL STATE SCALE (ISS) Version 2 and the ChronoBook SCORING KEY AND SUMMARY Mark S. Bauer, MD . b. absence of signs of malfunctioning. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. In terms of brain wave activity, stage 1 sleep is associated with both alpha and theta waves. Aches and pains, such as severe headache and muscle and joint pain. (West et al., 2009, p. 114). Given that college students are notorious for suffering from significant sleep debt (Hicks, Fernandez, & Pelligrini, 2001; Hicks, Johnson, & Pelligrini, 1992; Miller, Shattuck, & Matsangas, 2010), chances are you and your classmates deal with sleep debt-related issues on a regular basis. Another theory regarding why we sleep involves sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation (Rattenborg, Lesku, Martinez-Gonzalez, & Lima, 2007). These changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are distinguished from one another by both the frequency and amplitude of brain waves (Figure 4.7). . Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). Heroin users often shoot the drug directly into their veins. Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. In some cases, though, there may be no symptoms of inflammation at all. A) managed care Some sleep-deprived individuals have difficulty staying awake when they stop moving (for example sitting and watching television or driving a car). In recent years, methamphetamine (meth) use has become increasingly widespread. Physiologically, the body can become addicted to opiate drugs in less than a week, including when taken as prescribed. More specifically, homeostasis is the body's tendency to monitor and maintain internal states, such as temperature and blood sugar, at fairly constant and stable levels. While sleep apnea is less common in thin people, anyone, regardless of their weight, who snores loudly or gasps for air while sleeping, should be checked for sleep apnea. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures. All of the following are true statements concerning the health of Americans EXCEPT: a. mortality rates from smoking have declined. Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. Why do we devote so much time to sleeping? Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that promotes sleep. Devices like this are designed to provide exposure to bright light to help people maintain a regular circadian cycle. Given the central role that sleep plays in our lives and the number of adverse consequences that have been associated with sleep deprivation, one would think that we would have a clear understanding of why it is that we sleep. It is quite possible that sleep serves no single universally adaptive function, and different species have evolved different patterns of sleep in response to their unique evolutionary pressures. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the womans fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis. For instance, have you ever daydreamed while driving home from work or school without really thinking about the drive itself? Generally, people use caffeine to maintain increased levels of alertness and arousal. Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system. This created a black market for the drug, where prices soared to $80 or more for a single pill. When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. As discussed by Siegel (2008), a definition of sleep must also include mention of the interplay of the circadian and homeostatic mechanisms that regulate sleep. Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction. Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles (Figure 4.9). Heroin can be snorted, smoked, or injected intravenously. Codeineis an opioid with relatively low potency. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. Homeostasis refers to the body's need to reach and maintain a certain state of equilibrium. In fact, ameta-analysis, which is a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old, we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per day (Ohayon, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004). Many of these drugs act as agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system. In other words, dreaming involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use to help us during wakefulness. Upon a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a bloody knife in the trunk of Falaters car, and he had blood stains on his neck. Rapid eye movement (REM)sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). Obstructive sleep apneaoccurs when an individuals airway becomes blocked during sleep, and air is prevented from entering the lungs. In the wake of the opiate epidemic, many drug cartels in Mexico are shifting from producing heroin to producing highly potent but inexpensive forms of methamphetamine. These episodes can last 1020 seconds or longer and often are associated with brief periods of arousal. Other depressants include barbiturates and benzodiazepines. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. (2005) found that sleepwalking was not alleviated with the use of benzodiazepines. While "internal state" or impulsivity are terms more generally discussed in psychology or neuroscience, the concept is familiar to anyone. 3. This final section will consider hypnotic and meditative states as additional examples of altered states of consciousness experienced by some individuals. The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment is called homeostasis. For example, the National Institutes of Drug Abuse has sponsored research that suggests the misuse and abuse of the prescription pain killers hydrocodone and oxycodone are significant public health concerns (Maxwell, 2006). The typical episode can last from a minute or two to half an hour. The prevalence rates for somatic disorders are often difficult to determine; however, overall estimates of somatic symptom disorder are around 4-6%. describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Therefore, it is important to make a distinction between hypnosis as an empirically based therapeutic approach versus as a form of entertainment. The amount of sleep we get varies across the lifespan. High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. Complete the following multiple choice quiz covering chapters 1, 6, and 9. Manifest contentis the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. Two theories attempt to answer this question: One theory views hypnosis as dissociation and the other theory views it as the performance of a social role. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, andinsomnia(i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a months time) (Roth, 2007). In addition, the appearance of K-complexes is often associated with stage 2 sleep. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. His children and his wifes parents all agreed that Falater had an excellent relationship with his wife and they couldnt think of a reason that would provide any sort of motive to murder her (Cartwright, 2004). In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista, Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012). Bloating or a feeling of fullness in the abdomen. During periods of emotional arousal, the woman complained that she felt some weakness on the right side of her body. During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. In addition, these drugs can cause feelings of anxiety, hallucinations, and paranoia (Fiorentini et al., 2011). Rotating shift work has pervasive effects on the lives and experiences of individuals engaged in that kind of work, which is clearly illustrated in stories reported in a qualitative study that researched the experiences of middle-aged nurses who worked rotating shifts (West, Boughton & Byrnes, 2009). 1. Adepressantis a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Melatonin is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and the immune system (Hardeland et al., 2006). For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi, Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). Depletion of certain neurotransmitters can lead to mood dysphoria, cognitive problems, and other factors. Instead, sleep is composed of several different stages that can be differentiated from one another by the patterns of brain wave activity that occur during each stage. Guilleminault et al. Abnormal Motor Behavior. d. both b and c. 2. People vary in terms of their ability to be hypnotized, but a review of available research suggests that most people are at least moderately hypnotizable (Kihlstrom, 2013). Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. Not able to pass stool or gas. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. It is administered alone or in conjunction with doses of melatonin (the hormone secreted by the pineal gland). Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. Heroin produces intense feelings of euphoria and pleasure, which are amplified when the heroin is injected intravenously. (b) People practicing meditation may experience an alternate state of consciousness. . For example, irritability, distractibility, and impairments in cognitive and moral judgment can occur with fewer than four hours of sleep. The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. (credit: Laurie Avocado). A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. Research shows that the most severe effects of sleep deprivation occur when a person stays awake for more than 24 hours (Killgore & Weber, 2014; Killgore et al., 2007), or following repeated nights with fewer than four hours in bed (Wickens, Hutchins, Lauk, Seebook, 2015). While there is tremendous variation in any given individuals sleep needs, the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) cites research to estimate that newborns require the most sleep (between 12 and 18 hours a night) and that this amount declines to just 79 hours by the time we are adults. The typical positive symptoms of schizophrenia , such as hallucinatory experiences or fixed delusional beliefs, tend to be very upsetting and disruptivenot a positive experience at all for you or someone you care about who is experiencing them. 1. Restless leg syndrome is quite common and has been associated with a number of other medical diagnoses, such as chronic kidney disease and diabetes (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). . High doses can cause death due to respiratory depression. This pattern of temperature fluctuation, which repeats every day, is one example of a circadian rhythm. 0. (credit a: modification of work by Todd Huffman), Psychedelic images like this are often associated with hallucinogenic compounds. The smokable form reaches the brain very quickly to produce an intense euphoria that dissipates almost as fast as it arrives, prompting users to continuing taking the drug. You have read that the pineal gland releases melatonin during sleep (Figure 4.6). The three types of sleep apnea are central apnea, obstructive apnea (OSA), and a mixture of central and obstructive apnea. c. are influenced by peer pressure, often leading to unhealthful or unsafe behaviors. In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. This causes blood vessels to dilate, and the skin may feel warm and flushed. On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. Medical marijuana is marijuana that is prescribed by a doctor for the treatment of a health condition. Which of the following is true regarding patient adherence: d - all of the above (a - the average adherence rate for taking medication to treat acute illness is about 67%, b - adherence to taking medicine . Has something like this ever happened to you? He suffered from no apparent anatomical brain anomalies or psychological disorders. (a) A typical CPAP device used in the treatment of sleep apnea is (b) affixed to the head with straps, and a mask that covers the nose and mouth. In general, smoking cessation programs may be effective in the short term, but it is unclear whether these effects persist (Cropley, Theadom, Pravettoni, & Webb, 2008; Levitt, Shaw, Wong, & Kaczorowski, 2007; Smedslund, Fisher, Boles, & Lichtenstein, 2004). Caffeine is an adenosine antagonist, so caffeine inhibits the adenosine receptors, thus decreasing sleepiness and promoting wakefulness. In her case, the fact that her cataplexy was confined to the right side of her body was quite unusual. In addition, sleep deprivation often results in depression-like symptoms. Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. Upon admission to an outpatient clinic for treatment of mood disorders, she met all of the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence and was advised to dramatically limit her caffeine intake. Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). Some animals never sleep (e.g., some fish and amphibian species); other animals sleep very little without apparent negative consequences (e.g., giraffes); yet some animals (e.g., rats) die after two weeks of sleep deprivation (Siegel, 2008). Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. Individuals who do rotating shift work are also likely to experience disruptions in circadian cycles. In other words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder. d. the gender gap between male and female life expectancy has increased. Body temperature rises throughout the waking day, peaking in the afternoon, and falls during sleep with the lowest point occurring during the very early morning hours. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. Because GABA has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA agonists also have a quieting effect; these types of drugs are often prescribed to treat both anxiety and insomnia. Stimulant users seek aeuphoric high, feelings of intense elation and pleasure, especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or smoking. The pineal and pituitary glands secrete a number of hormones during sleep. Try going to bed and waking up at the same time every day to keep your biological clock in sync so your body gets in the habit of sleeping every night. Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. One or two nights of sleep difficulty is not unusual, but if you experience anything more than that, you should seek a doctors advice. There is a tremendous amount of variability among sufferers, both in terms of how symptoms of narcolepsy manifest and the effectiveness of currently available treatment options. There are a variety of drugs that treat restless leg syndrome: benzodiazepines, opiates, and anticonvulsants (Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation, n.d.). Neurogenic shock is caused by damage to the central nervous system, usually a spinal cord injury. In Falaters case, a jury found him guilty of first degree murder in June of 1999 (CNN, 1999); however, there are other murder cases where the sleepwalking defense has been used successfully. This section will describe several sleep disorders as well as some of their treatment options. While we all experience altered states of consciousness in the form of sleep on a regular basis, some people use drugs and other substances that result in altered states of consciousness as well. It may seem counterintuitive that stimulant medications are prescribed to treat a disorder that involves hyperactivity, but the therapeutic effect comes from increases in neurotransmitter activity within certain areas of the brain associated with impulse control. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. Some people might turn to over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed sleep medications to help them sleep, but this should be done sparingly because many sleep medications result in dependence and alter the nature of the sleep cycle, and they can increase insomnia over time. This is illustrated by McCartys (2010) case study of a 50-year-old woman who sought help for the excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours that she had experienced for several years. While individuals suffering from sleep apnea may not be aware of these repeated disruptions in sleep, they do experience increased levels of fatigue. People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. Large-scale public health campaigns by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Drug Abuse have led to recent declines in the opioid crisis. Confusion. The substantial amount of research on SIDS has led to a number of recommendations to parents to protect their children (Figure 4.14). Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. Parasomnias can occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS (Berkowitz, 2012; Mage & Donner, 2006; Thach, 2005). a - a mole that looks cancerous. Surprisingly, sleep apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease (Snchez-de-la-Torre, Campos-Rodriguez, & Barb, 2012). This hypnogram illustrates how an individual moves through the various stages of sleep. The lifespan perspective in health psychology reveals that adolescents One of the shortcomings with the health belief model is Risk factors for a health problem People whose personalities include high levels of _____ seem to be "disease"

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